Data models outlive frameworks, teams, and rewrites — normalize for truth, index for the read paths you actually have, and encode integrity in the
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Entities and relationships mirroring reality, one fact one place — denormalize later, deliberately, for measured read paths, never as the starting posture.
Foreign keys, uniques, checks, and NOT NULLs — the database as last line of defense against every future bug and 'quick script.'
Read your actual query patterns, index those, and watch write costs — the unindexed foreign key and the 40-index table are equal and opposite sins.
Soft-delete/effective-dating where audits will ask, archival strategy before tables hit hundreds of millions, and migration discipline from day one.
Skipping the discipline this article describes until an incident, audit, or stalled project forces it — every practice above is cheaper adopted early than retrofitted under pressure.
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